Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Clinical Symptomatology, Neurobiological Mechanisms, Treatment Approaches, and Comorbid Conditions — A Comprehensive Review

Abstract

1. Introduction

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a psychiatric condition that can develop in individuals who have been exposed to traumatic events such as war, sexual assault, natural disasters, or life-threatening accidents. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), PTSD is characterized by four main symptom clusters: intrusive recollections, avoidance behaviors, negative alterations in cognition and mood, and hyperarousal (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013). The International Classification of Diseases, 11th Revision (ICD-11), also provides diagnostic criteria that emphasize re-experiencing, avoidance, and a persistent sense of threat (World Health Organization [WHO], 2019).

PTSD affects approximately 3.5% of the global population annually, with significantly higher prevalence in populations exposed to combat, forced migration, and interpersonal violence (Kessler et al., 2017). Although the majority of trauma-exposed individuals do not develop PTSD, those who do may experience chronic symptoms that impair social, occupational, and psychological functioning.